For example, discourse analysts would try to identify the rhetorical devices by which we all as speakers seek to persuade each other of our arguments, and the functions served by various discourses. Discourse analysts do not aim to find an absolute truth about how people use language. They are more interested in the processes whereby people construct meanings socially and individually. Discourse analysis is an example of a hermeneutic approach. Hermeneutic approaches focus on meaning-making; that is, the work of interpretation.
People are treated as meaning-producers, with the task of the investigator being to interpret meanings. Hermeneutic approaches, therefore, tend to use qualitative methods rather than measuring variables, taking group averages and drawing conclusions with the help of statistics as in experimental and other quantitative methods.
The data they produce tend to relate to particular individuals in specific contexts, rather than generalizing to a population as a whole.
The different methods described above alert us to the fact that social scientific research is not just one enterprise, but a series of interlocking enterprises in which researchers have different views about the best ways to try to understand or explain people and their behavior and experience.
These are arguments about epistemology ; that is, what questions to ask, what sort of evidence to look for, what sort of criteria to use to evaluate explanations, and what sort of methods to use. All knowledge and all efforts to gain knowledge operate in a context, a set of connected and compatible assumptions about what exists and the way to gain knowledge of it.
And we have already seen that research is done within a paradigm, which is a philosophical framework made up of assumptions about the subject matter and the ways in which it should be studied, including the methods and the kinds of data that are considered to be legitimate. This leads to debates between social scientists operating in different paradigms, as Peter Barnes explains:. At any one time some approaches are in the ascendant while others are in the doldrums.
Different views exist on what subjects are worthy of investigation — and even on whether it is possible to investigate them — and these, too, have fashions. Barnes, P. Rosenhan, D. This involves a study where a theory is developed by observing the experiential reality; thus, general inferences are made from particular instances, which is the opposite of the deductive method. Therefore, the researcher collects and analyzes data and based on inferences draws a theory.
It is more open-ended and exploratory. Predictive research launches an explanation for what is happening in a particular situation. It intends to generalize by predicting certain phenomena on the basis of hypothesized, general relationships. It attemps to forecast what will happen in the event of something taking its course.
Types of Research Applied Research This type of research applies its findings to solve a specific existing problem. Pure Research When the research problem is of a less specific nature and the research is being conducted primarily to improve our understanding of general issues without emphasis on its immediate application, it is classified as basic or pure research. Exploratory Research Exploratory Research is conducted to explore a research problem or issue on which there are very few or no earlier studies to refer for information about the issue or problem.
Descriptive Research Thi s is conducted in order to describe a phenomenon, as they exist. Analytical or Explanatory Research This is a furtherance of descriptive research. Quantitative Research This is a study of an identified problem, based on testing a theory, measured with numbers, and evaluated using statistical methods.
Qualitative Research This investigates a social or human problem from different perspectives. Empirical Research This depends on data and drawn conclusions which could be proved or verifed by observation or experiment. Deductive Research Deductive research is a study in which a conceptual and theoretical structure is developed and then tested by empirical observation; thus, moving from general to specific.
Inductive Research This involves a study where a theory is developed by observing the experiential reality; thus, general inferences are made from particular instances, which is the opposite of the deductive method. Predictive Research Predictive research launches an explanation for what is happening in a particular situation. A screening process to understand an overview of the relationship can be an easy method. A marriage counselor can use a relationship survey to understand the chemistry in a relationship, the factors that influence the health of a relationship, the challenges faced in a relationship and expectations in a relationship.
Such a survey can be very useful to deduce various findings in a patient and treatment can be done accordingly. Another example for the use of surveys can be to gather information on the awareness of disasters and disaster management programs. A lot of institutions like the UN or the local disaster management team try to keep their communities prepared for disasters.
Possessing knowledge about this is crucial in disaster prone areas and is a good type of knowledge that can help everyone. In such a case, a survey can enable these institutions to understand what are the areas that can be promoted more and what regions need what kind of training. Experiments: An experimental research is conducted by researchers to observe the change in one variable on another, i.
In experiments, there is a theory which needs to be proved or disproved by careful observation and analysis. An efficient experiment will be successful in building a cause-effect relationship while proving, rejecting or disproving a theory. Laboratory and field experiments are preferred by researchers. Interviews: The technique of garnering opinions and feedback by asking selected questions face-to-face, via telephone or online mediums is called interview research.
There are formal and informal interviews — formal interviews are the ones which are organized by the researcher with structured open-ended and closed-ended questions and format while informal interviews are the ones which are more of conversations with the participants and are extremely flexible to collect as much information as possible.
Examples of interviews in social research are sociological studies that are conducted to understand how religious people are. To this effect, a Church survey can be used by a pastor or priest to understand from the laity the reasons they attend Church and if it meets their spiritual needs.
Observation: In observational research, a researcher is expected to be involved in the daily life of all the participants to understand their routine, their decision-making skills, their capability to handle pressure and their overall likes and dislikes.
These factors and recorded and careful observations are made to decide factors such as whether a change in law will impact their lifestyle or whether a new feature will be accepted by individuals. Quantitative Observation. Qualitative Observation. Though you're welcome to continue on your mobile screen, we'd suggest a desktop or notebook experience for optimal results. Survey software Leading survey software to help you turn data into decisions.
The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change. Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.
In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them. This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.
It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method. Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study.
Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research. It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations. This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.
In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly. In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation.
It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories. It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience. It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas.
Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.
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